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to be efficient in one's work

  • 1 efficient

    efficient [ɪ'fɪʃənt]
    (method, company) efficace; (piece of work) bien fait; (machine → in operation) qui fonctionne bien; (→ in output) qui a un bon rendement; (person) performant, capable, compétent;
    ∎ to be efficient at sth faire qch avec compétence;
    ∎ to be efficient in one's work se montrer capable dans son travail;
    ∎ the machine is now at its most efficient (functions well) la machine a maintenant un fonctionnement optimal; (has high output) la machine a maintenant un rendement optimal;
    ∎ to make more efficient use of sth utiliser qch de manière plus efficace;
    ∎ it was an efficient performance by the Australian team ce fut une belle performance de la part de l'équipe australienne

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > efficient

  • 2 efficient

    {e'fiʃənt}
    1. изпълнителен, експедитивен, способен
    to be EFFICIENT at doing something върша нещо с вещина
    to be EFFICIENT in one's work добър работник съм, умело/компетентно се справям с работата си
    2. ефикасен, резултатен
    3. добре извършен (за работа)
    4. тех. производителен, продуктивен
    * * *
    {e'fishъnt} а 1. изпълнителен, експедитивен, способен; to be
    * * *
    продуктивен; производителен; действен; ефективен; ефикасен; експедитивен; изпълнителен;
    * * *
    1. to be efficient at doing something върша нещо с вещина 2. to be efficient in one's work добър работник съм, умело/компетентно се справям с работата си 3. добре извършен (за работа) 4. ефикасен, резултатен 5. изпълнителен, експедитивен, способен 6. тех. производителен, продуктивен
    * * *
    efficient[i´fiʃənt] I. adj 1. който работи добре, способен, изпълнителен, експедитивен; to be \efficient at doing s.th. бива ме да върша нещо, добре върша нещо; to be \efficient in o.'s work умело (компетентно) се справям с работата си; 2. добре извършен (за работа); 3. ост., филос. действен; \efficient cause (действена) причина; 4. тех. производителен, продуктивен; ефективен, резултатен \efficient machine високо производителна машина; машина в изправност (която работи добре, без повреди); FONT face=Times_Deutsch◊ adv efficiently; II. n 1. воен., ист. обучен доброволец; 2. мат. множимо, множител.

    English-Bulgarian dictionary > efficient

  • 3 work

    1. n
    1) работа; труд; дело
    2) место работы; должность, занятие
    3) действие, функционирование
    4) изделие; изделия, продукция
    5) заготовка; обрабатываемое изделие
    6) pl завод, фабрика, мастерские

    - actual work
    - additional work
    - adjustment work
    - administrative work
    - agency work
    - agricultural work
    - aircraft works
    - ancillary work
    - art work
    - artistic work
    - assembly work
    - auditing work
    - auxiliary work
    - building works
    - casual work
    - civil work
    - civil engineering works
    - clerical work
    - commercial work
    - commission work
    - commissioning work
    - construction works
    - contract work
    - contractor's works
    - daily work
    - day work
    - day-to-day work
    - decorating work
    - decoration work
    - defective work
    - design work
    - double-shift work
    - efficient work
    - engineering work
    - engineering works
    - field work
    - fine work
    - finishing work
    - full-capacity work
    - full-time work
    - future work
    - hand work
    - heavy engineering works
    - high-class work
    - highly mechanized work
    - highly skilled work
    - hired work
    - incentive work
    - installation work
    - integrated works
    - intellectual work
    - iron and steel works
    - joint work
    - laboratory work
    - labour-intensive work
    - lorry works
    - low-paid work
    - machine work
    - maintenance work
    - maker's works
    - managerial work
    - manual work
    - manufacturer's works
    - mechanical work
    - metallurgical works
    - mounting work
    - multishift work
    - night work
    - nonshift work
    - office work
    - one-shift work
    - on-site work
    - outdoor work
    - outstanding work
    - overtime work
    - packing work
    - paid work
    - paper work
    - partial work
    - part-time work
    - patent work
    - permanent work
    - piece work
    - planned work
    - planning work
    - practical work
    - preliminary work
    - preparatory work
    - productive work
    - reconstruction work
    - regular work
    - remedial work
    - repair work
    - rescue work
    - research work
    - routine work
    - rush work
    - rythmical work
    - salvage work
    - satisfactory work
    - scheduled work
    - scientific work
    - seasonal work
    - second-shift work
    - serial work
    - service work
    - shift work
    - short-time work
    - smooth work
    - spare-time work
    - stevedore work
    - stevedoring work
    - subcontract work
    - subcontractor's works
    - subsidiary work
    - survey and research work
    - task work
    - team work
    - temporary work
    - testing work
    - time work
    - two-shift work
    - unhealthy work
    - unskilled work
    - wage work
    - well-paid work
    - work according to the book
    - work at normal working hours
    - work at piece rates
    - work at time rates
    - work by contract
    - work by hire
    - work by the piece
    - work by the rules
    - work for hire
    - work in process
    - work in progress
    - works of art
    - work of development
    - work of equipment
    - work of an exhibition
    - work on a contract
    - work on a contractual basis
    - work on hand
    - work on a project
    - work on schedule
    - work on the site
    - work under way
    - ex works
    - out of work
    - fit for work
    - unfit for work
    - work done
    - work performed
    - accept work
    - accomplish work
    - alter work
    - assess work
    - be at work
    - be behind with one's work
    - begin work
    - bill work
    - be on short time work
    - be thrown out of work
    - carry out work
    - cease work
    - close down the works
    - commence work
    - complete work
    - control work
    - coordinate work
    - correct work
    - do work
    - employ on work
    - entrust with work
    - evaluate work
    - execute work
    - expedite work
    - finalize work
    - finish work
    - fulfil work
    - get work
    - get down to work
    - give out work by contract
    - go ahead with work
    - hold up work
    - improve work
    - inspect work
    - insure work
    - interfere with work
    - interrupt work
    - leave off work
    - look for work
    - organize work
    - pay for work
    - perform work
    - postpone work
    - proceed with work
    - provide work
    - put off work
    - rate work
    - rectify defective work
    - reject work
    - remedy defective work
    - resume work
    - retire from work
    - speed up work
    - start work
    - step up work
    - stop work
    - superintend work
    - supervise work
    - suspend work
    - take over work
    - take up work
    - terminate work
    - undertake work
    2. v
    2) действовать, функционировать

    - work off
    - work out
    - work over
    - work overtime
    - work to rule
    - work up

    English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > work

  • 4 efficient

    [ɪ'fɪʃənt] adjective fähig [Person]; tüchtig [Arbeiter, Sekretärin]; leistungsfähig [Maschine, Motor, Fabrik]; gut funktionierend [Methode, Organisation]
    * * *
    [i'fiʃənt]
    1) ((of a person) capable; skilful: a very efficient secretary.) tüchtig
    2) ((of an action, tool etc) producing (quick and) satisfactory results: The new lawn mower is much more efficient than the old one.) tauglich
    •
    - academic.ru/86575/efficiently">efficiently
    - efficiency
    * * *
    ef·fi·cient
    [ɪˈfɪʃənt]
    1. (productive) leistungsfähig, leistungsstark, effizient geh
    \efficient person fähige [o tüchtige] Person
    2. (economical) wirtschaftlichef·fi·cient·ly
    [ɪˈfɪʃəntli]
    adv effizient geh
    * * *
    [I'fISənt]
    adj
    person fähig, tüchtig; system, machine, company, organization leistungsfähig; car, engine (= powerful) leistungsfähig; (= economical) sparsam, verbrauchsarm; service gut, effizient (geh); method wirksam; way, use rationell

    work is organized in the most logical and efficient way — die Arbeit wird so logisch und rationell wie möglich organisiert

    * * *
    efficient adj (adv efficiently)
    1. effizient, tüchtig, (leistungs)fähig
    2. effizient, wirksam
    3. zügig, rasch und sicher, gewandt
    4. gründlich
    5. effizient, rationell, wirtschaftlich
    6. effizient, brauchbar, tauglich, gut funktionierend, TECH auch leistungsstark
    7. (be)wirkend:
    efficient cause wirkende Ursache
    * * *
    [ɪ'fɪʃənt] adjective fähig [Person]; tüchtig [Arbeiter, Sekretärin]; leistungsfähig [Maschine, Motor, Fabrik]; gut funktionierend [Methode, Organisation]
    * * *
    adj.
    effizient adj.
    geschäftstüchtig adj.
    leistungsfähig adj.
    wirkungsvoll adj.
    wirtschaftlich adj.

    English-german dictionary > efficient

  • 5 system

    noun
    1) (lit. or fig.) System, das; (of roads, railways also) Netz, das

    root system — (Bot.) Wurzelgeflecht, das

    2) (Anat., Zool.): (body) Körper, der; (part)

    digestive/muscular/nervous system — Verdauungsapparat, der/Muskulatur, die/Nervensystem, das

    get something out of one's system — (fig.) etwas loswerden; (by talking) sich (Dat.) etwas von der Seele reden

    * * *
    ['sistəm]
    1) (an arrangement of many parts that work together: a railway system; the solar system; the digestive system.) das System, das Netz
    2) (a person's body: Take a walk every day - it's good for the system!) der Organismus
    3) (a way of organizing something according to certain ideas, principles etc: a system of government/education.) das System
    4) (a plan or method: What is your system for washing the dishes?) das System
    5) (the quality of being efficient and methodical: Your work lacks system.) das System
    •
    - academic.ru/72977/systematic">systematic
    - systematically
    * * *
    sys·tem
    [ˈsɪstəm]
    n
    1. (network) System nt
    a music/sound \system eine [Musik]anlage
    \system of presentation Darstellungssystematik f
    rail/road \system TRANSP Schienen-/Straßennetz nt; COMPUT System nt
    2. (method of organization) System nt; POL System nt, Regime nt
    the caste \system das Kastensystem
    the legal \system das Rechtssystem
    3. ASTRON System nt
    solar \system Sonnensystem nt
    4. (way of measuring) System nt
    binary/decimal \system Binär-/Dezimalsystem nt
    5. ( approv: order) System nt, Ordnung f
    6. MED [Organ]system nt
    ▪ the \system der Organismus
    digestive/immune/nervous \system Verdauungs-/Immun-/Nervensystem nt
    7. ( pej)
    ▪ the \system (the establishment) das System
    to beat the \system sich akk gegen das System durchsetzen
    8.
    ▶ to get something out of one's \system ( fam) etw loswerden fam
    * * *
    ['sɪstəm]
    n
    1) System nt

    the Pitman system of shorthand — die Kurzschriftmethode nach Pitman

    system of references — Bezugs- or Referenzsystem nt

    2) (= working whole) System nt

    to pass through the system — den Körper auf natürlichem Wege verlassen

    it was a shock to his system — er hatte schwer damit zu schaffen

    to get sth out of one's system (fig inf) — sich (dat) etw von der Seele schaffen, etw loswerden (inf)

    it's all systems go! (inf) — jetzt heißt es: volle Kraft voraus!

    3)

    (= established authority) the system — das System

    4) (COMPUT: machine, operating system) System nt
    * * *
    system [ˈsıstəm] s
    1. allg System n:
    a) Aufbau m, Gefüge n
    b) Einheit f, geordnetes Ganzes
    c) Anordnung f
    2. (Eisenbahn-, Straßen-, Verkehrs- etc) Netz n
    3. TECH System n, Anlage f
    4. wissenschaftlich: System n, Lehrgebäude n:
    5. System n:
    a) Ordnung f, Form f
    b) Verfahren n, Methode f, Plan m:
    system of government Regierungssystem, Staatsform;
    system of play SPORT Spielsystem;
    a system by which to win at roulette ein Gewinnsystem beim Roulett;
    have system in one’s work System in der Arbeit haben;
    lack system kein System haben
    6. (Maß-, Gewichts) System n
    7. ASTRON (Sonnen)System n:
    the system, this system das Weltall
    8. MATH
    a) (Bezugs)System n
    b) System n, Schar f:
    system of coordinates Koordinatensystem;
    system of lines Geradenschar
    9. ANAT, PHYSIOL
    a) (Organ)System n
    b) the system der Organismus, der Körper:
    get sth out of one’s system fig umg etwas loswerden
    10. BOT, ZOOL (Klassifikations)System n
    11. GEOL Formation f
    12. CHEM, PHYS System n
    syst. abk system Syst.
    * * *
    noun
    1) (lit. or fig.) System, das; (of roads, railways also) Netz, das

    root system — (Bot.) Wurzelgeflecht, das

    2) (Anat., Zool.): (body) Körper, der; (part)

    digestive/muscular/nervous system — Verdauungsapparat, der/Muskulatur, die/Nervensystem, das

    get something out of one's system — (fig.) etwas loswerden; (by talking) sich (Dat.) etwas von der Seele reden

    * * *
    n.
    Methode -n f.
    System -e n.

    English-german dictionary > system

  • 6 system

    ['sɪstəm]
    1) sistema m., metodo m. ( for doing, to do per fare)
    2) inform. sistema m.
    3) (electrical, mechanical) impianto m.
    5) (network) rete f.

    road, river system — rete stradale, fluviale

    6) anat. med.
    7) (whole body) organismo m.

    to get sth. out of one's system — eliminare, buttare fuori qcs. (anche fig.)

    * * *
    ['sistəm]
    1) (an arrangement of many parts that work together: a railway system; the solar system; the digestive system.) sistema
    2) (a person's body: Take a walk every day - it's good for the system!) organismo
    3) (a way of organizing something according to certain ideas, principles etc: a system of government/education.) sistema
    4) (a plan or method: What is your system for washing the dishes?) sistema, metodo
    5) (the quality of being efficient and methodical: Your work lacks system.) metodo
    •
    - systematically
    * * *
    ['sɪstəm]
    1) sistema m., metodo m. ( for doing, to do per fare)
    2) inform. sistema m.
    3) (electrical, mechanical) impianto m.
    5) (network) rete f.

    road, river system — rete stradale, fluviale

    6) anat. med.
    7) (whole body) organismo m.

    to get sth. out of one's system — eliminare, buttare fuori qcs. (anche fig.)

    English-Italian dictionary > system

  • 7 system

    'sistəm
    1) (an arrangement of many parts that work together: a railway system; the solar system; the digestive system.) sistema
    2) (a person's body: Take a walk every day - it's good for the system!) organismo
    3) (a way of organizing something according to certain ideas, principles etc: a system of government/education.) sistema
    4) (a plan or method: What is your system for washing the dishes?) método
    5) (the quality of being efficient and methodical: Your work lacks system.) organización, sistema, método
    •
    - systematically
    system n sistema
    tr['sɪstəm]
    2 (body) cuerpo, organismo
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    all systems go! ¡todo bien!
    systems analysis análisis nombre masculino de sistemas
    system ['sɪstəm] n
    1) method: sistema m, método m
    2) apparatus: sistema m, instalación f, aparato m
    electrical system: instalación eléctrica
    digestive system: aparato digestivo
    3) body: organismo m, cuerpo m
    diseases that affect the whole system: enfermedades que afectan el organismo entero
    4) network: red f
    n.
    • constitución s.f.
    • mecanismo s.m.
    • método s.m.
    • red s.f.
    • régimen s.m.
    • sistema s.m.
    'sɪstəm
    1)
    a) u c ( ordered structure) sistema m, método m
    b) c ( procedure) sistema m

    filing/classification system — sistema de archivo/clasificación

    c) c ( organizational whole) sistema m
    2) c
    a) (technical, mechanical) sistema m
    b) ( Comput) sistema m
    c) ( Audio) equipo m (de sonido or audio)
    3) c
    a) (Anat, Physiol)
    b) ( body) cuerpo m, organismo m

    my system can't cope with so much food — mi cuerpo or mi organismo no puede con tanta comida

    to get somebody/something out of one's system: it took me years to get her out of my system me llevó años olvidarla or sacármela de la cabeza; I had to say it; I needed to get it out of my system — se lo tuve que decir; me tenía que desahogar

    4) c
    a) ( form of government) sistema m
    b) (establishment, status quo)
    5) c ( for gambling) fórmula f, martingala f (CS)
    ['sɪstǝm]
    1. N
    1) (=method) sistema m

    new teaching systems — nuevos sistemas or métodos de enseñanza

    2) (Pol, Sociol) (=organization) sistema m

    a political/economic/social system — un sistema político/económico/social

    3) (Math, Sci) (=principles) sistema m

    binary/decimal/metric system — sistema m binario/decimal/métrico

    4) (Elec, Comput, Mech) sistema m
    5) (=network) sistema m, red f

    transport system — sistema m or red f de transportes

    6) (=order) método m
    7) (Med) (=organism) organismo m, cuerpo m

    the nervous/immune system — el sistema nervioso/inmunitario

    it was quite a shock to the system — (fig) fue un buen golpe para el organismo

    - get sth out of one's system
    8)

    the system — (=the establishment) el sistema

    9) (=classification) sistema m
    10) (Astron) sistema m

    solar system — sistema m solar

    2.
    CPD

    system disk N — disco m del sistema

    system operator N — (Comput) operador(a) m / f de sistemas

    system requirements NPL — requisitos mpl de configuración

    systems analysis N — análisis m inv de sistemas

    systems analyst N — (Comput) analista mf de sistemas

    systems engineer N — (Comput) ingeniero(-a) m / f de sistemas

    systems engineering N — ingeniería f de sistemas

    systems integrator N — (=business) integrador m de sistemas; (=person) integrador(a) m / f de sistemas

    systems programmer N — programador(a) m / f de sistemas

    systems software N — software m del sistema

    * * *
    ['sɪstəm]
    1)
    a) u c ( ordered structure) sistema m, método m
    b) c ( procedure) sistema m

    filing/classification system — sistema de archivo/clasificación

    c) c ( organizational whole) sistema m
    2) c
    a) (technical, mechanical) sistema m
    b) ( Comput) sistema m
    c) ( Audio) equipo m (de sonido or audio)
    3) c
    a) (Anat, Physiol)
    b) ( body) cuerpo m, organismo m

    my system can't cope with so much food — mi cuerpo or mi organismo no puede con tanta comida

    to get somebody/something out of one's system: it took me years to get her out of my system me llevó años olvidarla or sacármela de la cabeza; I had to say it; I needed to get it out of my system — se lo tuve que decir; me tenía que desahogar

    4) c
    a) ( form of government) sistema m
    b) (establishment, status quo)
    5) c ( for gambling) fórmula f, martingala f (CS)

    English-spanish dictionary > system

  • 8 system

    'sistəm
    1) (an arrangement of many parts that work together: a railway system; the solar system; the digestive system.) system
    2) (a person's body: Take a walk every day - it's good for the system!) organisme, kropp
    3) (a way of organizing something according to certain ideas, principles etc: a system of government/education.) system, ordning
    4) (a plan or method: What is your system for washing the dishes?) plan, metode
    5) (the quality of being efficient and methodical: Your work lacks system.) plan, system
    •
    - systematically
    organisasjon
    --------
    system
    subst. \/ˈsɪstəm\/
    1) system
    2) ordning
    3) systematikk, orden, metode, plan, prinsipp
    4) (administrasjon, politikk) system, samfunn, vesen, etat, nett
    5) ( anatomi) system, organisme
    6) ( geologi) system, formasjon
    7) ( astronomi) system
    do something on system gjøre noe systematisk
    get something out of one's system ( om følelser e.l.) bli ferdig med noe, gjøre seg ferdig med noe
    make a system of sette i system
    reduce to a system systematisere
    the system ( også) kroppen, organismen
    work with system arbeide systematisk\/metodisk

    English-Norwegian dictionary > system

  • 9 Historical Portugal

       Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.
       A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.
       Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140
       The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."
       In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.
       The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.
       Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385
       Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in
       Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.
       The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.
       Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580
       The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.
       The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.
       What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.
       By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.
       Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.
       The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.
       By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.
       In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.
       Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640
       Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.
       Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.
       On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.
       Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822
       Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.
       Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.
       In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the
       Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.
       Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.
       Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.
       Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910
       During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.
       Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.
       Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.
       Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.
       Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.
       As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.
       First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26
       Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.
       The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.
       Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.
       The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74
       During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."
       Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.
       For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),
       and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.
       The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.
       With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.
       During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.
       The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.
       At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.
       The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.
       Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76
       Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.
       Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.
       In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.
       In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.
       In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
       The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until
       UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.
       Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000
       After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.
       From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.
       Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.
       Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.
       In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.
       In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.
       Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.
       Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.
       The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.
       Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.
       Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).
       All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.
       The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.
       Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.
       Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.
       From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.
       Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.
       In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.
       An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal

  • 10 Stringfellow, John

    SUBJECT AREA: Aerospace
    [br]
    b. 6 December 1799 Sheffield, England
    d. 13 December 1883 Chard, England
    [br]
    English inventor and builder of a series of experimental model aeroplanes.
    [br]
    After serving an apprenticeship in the lace industry, Stringfellow left Nottingham in about 1820 and moved to Chard in Somerset, where he set up his own business. He had wide interests such as photography, politics, and the use of electricity for medical treatment. Stringfellow met William Samuel Henson, who also lived in Chard and was involved in lacemaking, and became interested in his "aerial steam carriage" of 1842–3. When support for this project foundered, Henson and Stringfellow drew up an agreement "Whereas it is intended to construct a model of an Aerial Machine". They built a large model with a wing span of 20 ft (6 m) and powered by a steam engine, which was probably the work of Stringfellow. The model was tested on a hillside near Chard, often at night to avoid publicity, but despite many attempts it never made a successful flight. At this point Henson emigrated to the United States. From 1848 Stringfellow continued to experiment with models of his own design, starting with one with a wing span of 10 ft (3m). He decided to test it in a disused lace factory, rather than in the open air. Stringfellow fitted a horizontal wire which supported the model as it gained speed prior to free flight. Unfortunately, neither this nor later models made a sustained flight, despite Stringfellow's efficient lightweight steam engine. For many years Stringfellow abandoned his aeronautical experiments, then in 1866 when the (Royal) Aeronautical Society was founded, his interest was revived. He built a steam-powered triplane, which was demonstrated "flying" along a wire at the world's first Aeronautical Exhibition, held at Crystal Palace, London, in 1868. Stringfellow also received a cash prize for one of his engines, which was the lightest practical power unit at the Exhibition. Although Stringfellow's models never achieved a really successful flight, his designs showed the way for others to follow. Several of his models are preserved in the Science Museum in London.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Member of the (Royal) Aeronautical Society 1868.
    Bibliography
    Many of Stringfellow's letters and papers are held by the Royal Aeronautical Society, London.
    Further Reading
    Harald Penrose, 1988, An Ancient Air: A Biography of John Stringfellow, Shrewsbury. A.M.Balantyne and J.Laurence Pritchard, 1956, "The lives and work of William Samuel Henson and John Stringfellow", Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society (June) (an attempt to analyse conflicting evidence).
    M.J.B.Davy, 1931, Henson and Stringfellow, London (an earlier work with excellent drawings from Henson's patent).
    "The aeronautical work of John Stringfellow, with some account of W.S.Henson", Aeronau-tical Classics No. 5 (written by John Stringfellow's son and held by the Royal Aeronautical Society in London).
    JDS

    Biographical history of technology > Stringfellow, John

  • 11 energy

    noun
    1) (vigour) Energie, die; (active operation) Kraft, die
    2) in pl. (individual's powers) Kraft, die
    3) (Phys.) Energie, die
    * * *
    ['enə‹i]
    plural - energies; noun
    1) (the ability to act, or the habit of acting, strongly and vigorously: He has amazing energy for his age; That child has too much energy; I must devote my energies to gardening today.) die Energie
    2) (the power, eg of electricity, of doing work: electrical energy; nuclear energy.) die Energie
    •
    - academic.ru/24293/energetic">energetic
    - energetically
    * * *
    en·er·gy
    [ˈenəʤi, AM ˈenɚ-]
    n
    1. no pl (vigour) Energie f, Kraft f
    I haven't got the \energy to go out tonight ich bin heute zu schlapp, um auszugehen
    to conserve one's \energy seine Kräfte schonen, mit seinen Kräften haushalten
    to be bursting [or brimming] with \energy vor Energie nur so sprühen
    to be full of \energy voller Energie stecken
    2. (totality of individual's power) Tatkraft f, Energie f
    to channel [or direct] [all] one's energies into sth [all] seine Kräfte auf etw akk konzentrieren, seine Energie in etw akk reinstecken
    to concentrate one's energies on sth all seine Energie für etw akk aufwenden
    3. SCI Energie f
    \energy crisis Energiekrise f
    sources of \energy Energiequellen pl
    * * *
    ['enədZɪ]
    n
    Energie f

    he put his speech over with a lot of energy — er hielt seine Rede mit viel Schwung

    to concentrate one's energies on doing sth — seine ganze Kraft dafür aufbieten, etw zu tun

    * * *
    energy [ˈenə(r)dʒı] s
    1. Energie f:
    a) Kraft f, Nachdruck m:
    apply ( oder devote) all one’s energies to sth seine ganze Kraft für etwas einsetzen
    b) Tatkraft f
    2. Wirksamkeit f, Durchschlagskraft f (eines Arguments etc)
    3. PHYS Energie f, (innewohnende) Kraft, Arbeitsfähigkeit f, Leistung f:
    energy balance Energiehaushalt m (des Körpers);
    energy budget Energiehaushalt m (der Erde etc);
    energy-conscious energiebewusst;
    energy crisis Energiekrise f;
    energy-efficient energiesparend;
    energy gap Energielücke f;
    energy-intensive energieintensiv;
    energy-saving energiesparend;
    energy-saving light bulb Energiesparlampe f;
    energy-saving measures Energiesparmaßnahmen;
    energy supply Energieversorgung f;
    energy theorem MATH Energiesatz m
    4. Kraftaufwand m
    E abk
    1. PHYS energy
    * * *
    noun
    1) (vigour) Energie, die; (active operation) Kraft, die
    2) in pl. (individual's powers) Kraft, die
    3) (Phys.) Energie, die
    * * *
    n.
    Energie -n f.
    Tatkraft -¨e f.

    English-german dictionary > energy

  • 12 design

    1) конструкция; проект; план
    2) проектирование, конструирование
    3) расчёт; определение размеров
    4) конструктивный вариант, конструктивное решение
    5) художественное моделирование, художественное оформление
    6) проектировать; конструировать
    •
    - design of concrete mix - design of detailed planning - design of mixture - design of reinforced concrete frame building - alternate design - approved design - architectural design - aseismic design - balanced design - barrier-free design - bridge design - building design - cantilever design - civil-engineering design - codes of structural design - computer-aided design - concrete design - contract design - contractor design - curvature design - custom design - detailed contract design - detailed design stage - draft design - engineering design - environmental design - experimental design - fail-safe design - full-size design - further-edge design of cross section - housing development design - human settlement design - hydraulic design - individual design - industrial design - intelligent design - interactive design - landscape design - lateral-force design - limit design - mix design - mock-up method of design - modular design - multistage design work - pavement design - pilot design - plastic design - point design - preliminary design - probabalistic design - project design - prototype design - regional planning design - research design - seismic design - single-stage design work - sprung arch design - standard design - standardized design - step-by-step design - structural design - structural steel design - thermal design - town planning design - traffic island design - two-stage design work - type design - typical design - ultimate load design - urban design
    * * *
    1.   конструкция
    2.   план, замысел; проект, проектное решение
    3.   чертёж, эскиз
    4.   проектирование; расчёт
    5.   дизайн || проектировать; рассчитывать

    design on empirical basis — эмпирический расчёт, расчёт на эмпирической основе

    design to limit state theory — расчёт, основанный на гипотезе предельных состояний; расчёт по предельным состояниям

    - design of stiffened compression flanges
    - design of structural members
    - design of structural steel
    - design of structures
    - design of welds
    - allowable stress design
    - alternate design
    - architectural design
    - basic design
    - beam design
    - building design
    - city design
    - civic design
    - composite design
    - computer-aided design
    - concrete mix design for pumping
    - construction joint design
    - cost-efficient design
    - critical-load design
    - elastic design
    - environmental design
    - experimental design
    - final design
    - form design
    - frame design
    - frost capacity design
    - fully rigid basis design
    - geometric highway design
    - hydraulic design
    - industrial design
    - integrated environmental design
    - landscape design
    - lateral-force design
    - limit design
    - limit-load design
    - limit-state design
    - load factor design
    - maximum load design
    - methods design
    - mix design
    - mix design with fly ash
    - modified structural design
    - modular design
    - one-off design
    - original design
    - outline design
    - pavement design
    - plastic design
    - plastic limit design
    - post and lintel design
    - probabilistic design
    - schematic design
    - seismic design
    - semirigid design
    - shearing design
    - shear design
    - site design
    - stable design
    - standard design
    - steel design
    - structural design
    - structural timber design
    - tender design
    - town-building design
    - trial design
    - tubular design
    - ultimate load design
    - ultimate-strength design
    - unified design
    - work design

    Англо-русский строительный словарь > design

  • 13 only

    'əunli
    1. adjective
    (without any others of the same type: He has no brothers or sisters - he's an only child; the only book of its kind.) único

    2. adverb
    1) (not more than: We have only two cups left; He lives only a mile away.) sólo, solamente
    2) (alone: Only you can do it.) sólo, solamente, únicamente
    3) (showing the one action done, in contrast to other possibilities: I only scolded the child - I did not smack him.) sólo
    4) (not longer ago than: I saw him only yesterday.) sólo
    5) (showing the one possible result of an action: If you do that, you'll only make him angry.) sólo, solamente, únicamente

    3. conjunction
    (except that, but: I'd like to go, only I have to work.) pero
    only1 adj único
    only2 adv solamente / sólo
    only just apenas / por los pelos
    it's very high, I can only just reach it es muy alto; apenas lo alcanzo
    only3 conj sólo que / pero
    I'd like to help, only I can't me gustaría ayudar, pero no puedo
    tr['əʊnlɪ]
    1 (sole) único,-a
    ■ the only problem is that... el único problema es que...
    1 (just, merely) sólo, solamente
    ■ they arrived home, only to discover that they'd been burgled llegaron a casa y se encontraron con que habían entrado a robar
    2 (exclusively) sólo, solamente, únicamente
    1 pero
    ■ it's like yoghurt, only better es como el yogur, pero mejor
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    not only... but also no solamente... sino también
    only just (a moment before) acabar de 2 (almost not, scarcely) por poco
    only too... muy...
    only child hijo,-a único,-a
    only ['o:nli] adv
    1) merely: sólo, solamente, nomás
    for only two dollars: por tan sólo dos dólares
    only once: sólo una vez, no más de una vez
    I only did it to help: lo hice por ayudar nomás
    2) solely: únicamente, sólo, solamente
    only he knows it: solamente él lo sabe
    it will only cause him problems: no hará más que crearle problemas
    4)
    if only : ojalá, por lo menos
    if only it were true!: ¡ojalá sea cierto!
    if he could only dance: si por lo menos pudiera bailar
    only adj
    : único
    an only child: un hijo único
    the only chance: la única oportunidad
    only conj
    but: pero
    I would go, only I'm sick: iría, pero estoy enfermo
    adj.
    • uno, -a adj.
    • únicamente adj.
    • único, -a adj.
    adv.
    • nada más adv.
    • no más que adv.
    • solamente adv.
    • sólo adv.
    • únicamente adv.
    conj.
    • pero conj.
    • sólo que conj.

    I 'əʊnli
    a) (merely, no more than) sólo, solamente

    you only have o have only to ask — no tienes más que pedir

    b) ( exclusively) sólo, solamente, únicamente
    c) ( no earlier than) sólo, recién (AmL)

    only then did I learn the truth — sólo or (AmL tb) recién entonces me enteré de la verdad

    only last week the very same problem came up — la semana pasada, sin ir más lejos, surgió el mismo problema

    if only: if only I were rich! ojalá fuera rico!; if only I'd known si lo hubiera sabido; only just: they've only just arrived ahora mismo acaban de llegar; he only just escaped being arrested se libró por poco de que lo detuvieran, se libró por un pelo or por los pelos de que lo detuvieran (fam); will it fit in? - only just ¿cabrá? - apenas or (fam) justito; not only..., but also... — no sólo..., sino también...


    II
    adjective (before n) único

    my only regret is that... — lo único que siento es que...


    III
    conjunction (colloq) pero

    I'd like to, only I'm very busy — me gustaría, pero or lo que pasa es que estoy muy ocupado

    ['ǝʊnlɪ]
    1.
    ADJ único

    • your only hope is to hide — la única posibilidad que te queda es esconderte

    • it's the only one left — es el único que queda

    "I'm tired" - "you're not the only one!" — -estoy cansado -¡no eres el único!

    • the only thing I don't like about it is... — lo único que no me gusta de esto es...

    pebble
    2. ADV
    The adverb only commonly translates as solo. In the past, when this was used as an adverb, it was usually written with an accent (sólo). Nowadays the Real Academia Española advises that the accented form is only required where there might otherwise be confusion with the adjective solo.
    1) (=no more than) solo, sólo, solamente

    he's only ten — solo or solamente tiene diez años

    we only have five — solo or solamente tenemos cinco

    what, only five? — ¿cómo, cinco nada más?, ¿cómo, solo or solamente cinco?

    2) (=merely)

    • you only have to ask, you have only to ask — no tienes más que pedirlo, solo tienes que pedirlo

    • it's only fair to tell him — lo mínimo que puedes hacer es decírselo

    • I was only joking — lo he dicho en broma

    • that only makes matters worse — eso solo empeora las cosas

    • I will only say that... — diré solamente que..., solo diré que...

    • I only wish he were here now — ojalá estuviese ahora aquí

    3) (=exclusively) solo

    • God only knows! ** — ¡Dios sabe!

    • only time will tell — solo el tiempo puede decirlo

    • a women-only therapy group — un grupo de terapia solo para mujeres

    4) (=not until)
    5) (=no longer ago than)

    I saw her only yesterday — ayer mismo la vi, la vi ayer nomás (LAm), recién ayer la vi (LAm)

    it seems like only yesterday that... — parece que fue ayer cuando...

    • only just, the hole was only just big enough — el agujero era lo justo

    I've only just arrived — acabo de llegar ahora mismo, no he hecho más que llegar

    it fits him, but only just — le cabe pero le queda muy justo

    • not only... but also, not only was he late but he also forgot the tickets — no solo llegó tarde sino que además olvidó las entradas

    • only too, I'd be only too pleased to help — estaría encantado de or me encantaría poder ayudar(les)

    if 1., 5)
    3.
    CONJ solo que, pero

    it's a bit like my house, only nicer — es un poco como mi casa, solo que or pero más bonita

    I would gladly do it, only I shall be away — lo haría de buena gana, solo que or pero voy a estar fuera

    4.
    CPD

    only child N — hijo(-a) m / f único(-a)

    one 1., 3)
    * * *

    I ['əʊnli]
    a) (merely, no more than) sólo, solamente

    you only have o have only to ask — no tienes más que pedir

    b) ( exclusively) sólo, solamente, únicamente
    c) ( no earlier than) sólo, recién (AmL)

    only then did I learn the truth — sólo or (AmL tb) recién entonces me enteré de la verdad

    only last week the very same problem came up — la semana pasada, sin ir más lejos, surgió el mismo problema

    if only: if only I were rich! ojalá fuera rico!; if only I'd known si lo hubiera sabido; only just: they've only just arrived ahora mismo acaban de llegar; he only just escaped being arrested se libró por poco de que lo detuvieran, se libró por un pelo or por los pelos de que lo detuvieran (fam); will it fit in? - only just ¿cabrá? - apenas or (fam) justito; not only..., but also... — no sólo..., sino también...


    II
    adjective (before n) único

    my only regret is that... — lo único que siento es que...


    III
    conjunction (colloq) pero

    I'd like to, only I'm very busy — me gustaría, pero or lo que pasa es que estoy muy ocupado

    English-spanish dictionary > only

  • 14 Team Management Wheel™

    Gen Mgt
    a visual aid for the efficient coordination of teamwork, which can be used to analyze how teams work together, assist in team building, and aid self-development and training. The Team Management Wheel outlines eight main team roles. Team members can determine the main functions of their jobs (what they have to do), by using the “Types of Work Index,” and can determine their own work preferences (what they want to do), using the “Team Management Index.” They are then assigned one major role and two minor roles on the Team Management Wheel. At the center of the Wheel are the linking skills common to all team members. The Team Management Wheel was developed by Charles Margerison and Dick McCann in 1984.

    The ultimate business dictionary > Team Management Wheel™

  • 15 say

    say [seɪ]
    dire ⇒ 1 (a)-(f), 2 penser ⇒ 1 (e) indiquer ⇒ 1 (g) marquer ⇒ 1 (g), 1 (h) exprimer ⇒ 1 (h)
    (pt & pp said [sed], 3rd pers sing says [sez])
    ∎ to say sth (to sb) dire qch (à qn);
    ∎ to say hello/goodbye to sb dire bonjour/au revoir à qn;
    ∎ say hello to them for me dites-leur bonjour de ma part;
    ∎ figurative I think you can say goodbye to your money je crois que vous pouvez dire adieu à votre argent;
    ∎ as I said yesterday/in my letter comme je l'ai dit hier/dans ma lettre;
    ∎ to say yes/no dire oui/non;
    ∎ did you say yes or no to his offer? tu as répondu oui ou non à sa proposition?, tu as accepté ou refusé sa proposition?;
    ∎ I wouldn't say no! je ne dis pas non!, ce n'est pas de refus!;
    ∎ I wouldn't say no to a cold drink je prendrais volontiers ou bien une boisson fraîche;
    ∎ to say please/thank you dire s'il vous plaît/merci;
    ∎ to say a prayer (for) dire une prière (pour);
    ∎ to say one's prayers faire sa prière;
    ∎ I can't say Russian names properly je n'arrive pas à bien prononcer les noms russes;
    ∎ I said to myself "let's wait a bit" je me suis dit "attendons un peu";
    ∎ what did he say about his plans? qu'a-t-il dit de ses projets?;
    ∎ have you said anything about it to him? est-ce que vous lui en avez parlé?;
    ∎ don't say too much about our visit ne parlez pas trop de notre visite;
    ∎ the less said the better moins nous parlerons, mieux cela vaudra;
    ∎ what did you say? (repeat what you said) pardon?, qu'avez-vous dit?; (in reply) qu'avez-vous répondu?;
    ∎ well, say something then! eh bien, dites quelque chose!;
    ∎ I can't think of anything to say je ne trouve rien à dire;
    ∎ I have nothing to say (gen) je n'ai rien à dire; (no comment) je n'ai aucune déclaration à faire;
    ∎ I have nothing more to say on the matter je n'ai rien à ajouter là-dessus;
    ∎ nothing was said about going to Moscow on n'a pas parlé d'aller ou il n'a pas été question d'aller à Moscou;
    ∎ let's say no more about it n'en parlons plus;
    ∎ can you say that again? pouvez-vous répéter ce que vous venez de dire?;
    ∎ you can say that again! c'est le cas de le dire!, je ne vous le fais pas dire!;
    ∎ Telecommunications who shall I say is calling? c'est de la part de qui?;
    ∎ say what you think dites ce que vous pensez;
    ∎ say what you mean dites ce que vous avez à dire;
    ∎ the chairman would like to say a few words le président voudrait dire quelques mots;
    ∎ he didn't have a good word to say about the plan il n'a dit que du mal du projet;
    ∎ he doesn't have a good word to say about anybody il n'a jamais rien de positif à dire sur personne;
    ∎ what have you got to say for yourself? eh bien, expliquez-vous!;
    ∎ he didn't have much to say for himself (spoke little) il n'avait pas grand-chose à dire; (no excuses) il n'avait pas de véritable excuse à donner;
    ∎ he certainly has a lot to say for himself il n'a pas la langue dans la poche;
    ∎ as you might say pour ainsi dire;
    ∎ so saying, he walked out sur ces mots, il est parti;
    ∎ to say nothing of the overheads sans parler des frais;
    ∎ British just say the word, you only have to say (the word) vous n'avez qu'un mot à dire;
    ∎ having said that ceci (étant) dit;
    ∎ to say one's piece dire ce qu'on a à dire;
    ∎ it goes without saying that we shall travel together il va sans dire ou il va de soi que nous voyagerons ensemble;
    ∎ familiar you said it! tu l'as dit!, comme tu dis!;
    ∎ familiar don't say you've forgotten! ne me dis pas que tu as oublié!;
    ∎ say no more n'en dis pas plus;
    ∎ well said! bien dit!;
    ∎ say when dis-moi stop;
    ∎ American say what? quoi?;
    ∎ when all's said and done tout compte fait, au bout du compte
    ∎ "not at all", she said "pas du tout", dit-elle;
    ∎ she says (that) the water's too cold elle dit que l'eau est trop froide;
    ∎ she said (we were) to come elle a dit qu'on devait venir;
    ∎ she said to get back early elle a dit qu'on devait rentrer tôt;
    ∎ they said on the news that… on a dit ou annoncé aux informations que…;
    ∎ they said it was going to rain ils ont annoncé de la pluie
    (c) (claim, allege) dire;
    ∎ they say ghosts really do exist ils disent que les fantômes existent vraiment;
    ∎ you know what they say, no smoke without fire tu sais ce qu'on dit, il n'y a pas de fumée sans feu;
    ∎ as they say comme ils disent ou on dit;
    ∎ it is said that no one will ever know the real story on dit que personne ne saura jamais ce qui s'est vraiment passé;
    ∎ I've heard it said that… j'ai entendu dire que… + indicative;
    ∎ these fans are said to be very efficient ces ventilateurs sont très efficaces, d'après ce qu'on dit;
    ∎ he is said to be rich, they say he is rich on le dit riche, on dit qu'il est riche;
    ∎ he is said to have emigrated on dit qu'il a émigré
    ∎ as you say, he is the best candidate comme tu dis, c'est lui le meilleur candidat;
    ∎ so he says, that's what he says c'est ce qu'il dit;
    ∎ I can't say how long it will last je ne peux pas dire combien de temps cela va durer;
    ∎ who can say? qui sait?;
    ∎ who can say when he'll come? qui peut dire quand il viendra?;
    ∎ (you can) say what you like, but I'm going vous pouvez dire ce que vous voulez, moi je m'en vais;
    ∎ I must say she's been very helpful je dois dire ou j'avoue qu'elle nous a beaucoup aidés;
    ∎ well this is a fine time to arrive, I must say! en voilà une heure pour arriver!;
    ∎ I'll say this much for them, they don't give up easily au moins, on peut dire qu'ils n'abandonnent pas facilement;
    ∎ I'll say this for him, he certainly tries hard je dois reconnaître qu'il fait tout son possible;
    ∎ you might as well say we're all mad! autant dire qu'on est tous fous!;
    ∎ you don't mean to say he's eighty-six vous n'allez pas me dire qu'il a quatre-vingt-six ans;
    ∎ is he stupid? - I wouldn't say that est-ce qu'il est bête? - je n'irais pas jusque-là;
    ∎ I should say so bien sûr que oui, je pense bien;
    ∎ I should say not! bien sûr que non!;
    ∎ if you say so si ou puisque tu le dis;
    ∎ and so say all of us et nous sommes tous d'accord ou de cet avis;
    ∎ there's no saying what will happen impossible de prédire ce qui va arriver;
    ∎ to say the least c'est le moins qu'on puisse dire;
    ∎ it's rather dangerous, to say the least c'est plutôt dangereux, c'est le moins qu'on puisse dire;
    ∎ I was surprised, not to say astounded j'étais surpris, pour ne pas dire stupéfait;
    ∎ there's not much to be said for the idea l'idée ne vaut pas grand-chose;
    ∎ there's a lot to be said for doing sport il y a beaucoup d'avantages à faire du sport;
    ∎ there is little to be said for beginning now on n'a pas intérêt à commencer dès maintenant;
    ∎ that's not saying much ça ne veut pas dire grand-chose;
    ∎ it doesn't say much for his powers of observation cela en dit long sur son sens de l'observation;
    ∎ you're honest, I'll say that for you je dirais en votre faveur que vous êtes honnête;
    ∎ that isn't saying much for him ce n'est pas à son honneur;
    ∎ it says a lot for his courage/about his real motives cela en dit long sur son courage/ses intentions réelles;
    ∎ the way you dress says something about you as a person la manière dont les gens s'habillent est révélatrice de leur personnalité
    (e) (think) dire, penser;
    ∎ I say you should leave je pense que vous devriez partir;
    ∎ what do you say? qu'en dites-vous?, qu'en pensez-vous?;
    ∎ what will people say? que vont dire les gens?;
    ∎ what did they say to your offer? qu'ont-ils dit de votre proposition?;
    ∎ what do you say we drive over or to driving over to see them? que diriez-vous de prendre la voiture et d'aller les voir?;
    ∎ what would you say to a picnic? que diriez-vous d'un pique-nique?, ça vous dit de faire un pique-nique?;
    ∎ when would you say would be the best time for us to leave? quel serait le meilleur moment pour partir, à votre avis?;
    ∎ to look at them, you wouldn't say they were a day over forty à les voir, on ne leur donnerait pas plus de quarante ans
    (f) (suppose, assume)
    ∎ (let's) say your plan doesn't work, what then? admettons ou supposons que votre plan ne marche pas, qu'est-ce qui se passe?;
    ∎ say he doesn't arrive, who will take his place? si jamais il n'arrive pas, qui prendra sa place?;
    ∎ look at, say, Jane Austen or George Eliot… prends Jane Austen ou George Eliot, par exemple…;
    ∎ if I had, say, £100,000 to spend si j'avais, mettons ou disons, 100 000 livres à dépenser;
    ∎ come tomorrow, say after lunch venez demain, disons ou mettons après le déjeuner;
    ∎ shall we say Sunday? disons dimanche, d'accord?
    (g) (indicate, register) indiquer, marquer;
    ∎ the clock says 10.40 la pendule indique 10 heures 40;
    ∎ what does your watch say? quelle heure est-il à ta montre?;
    ∎ the sign says 50 km le panneau indique 50 km;
    ∎ the gauge says 3.4 la jauge indique ou marque 3,4;
    ∎ it says "shake well" c'est marqué "bien agiter";
    ∎ the instructions say (to) open it out of doors dans le mode d'emploi, on dit qu'il faut l'ouvrir dehors;
    ∎ it says in the newspaper that… on dit dans le journal que… + indicative;
    ∎ the Bible says or it says in the Bible that… comme il est écrit dans la Bible…
    (h) (express → of intonation, eyes) exprimer, marquer;
    ∎ his expression said everything son expression était très éloquente ou en disait long;
    ∎ that look says a lot ce regard en dit long
    ∎ that is to say c'est-à-dire;
    ∎ it's short, that's to say, about twenty pages c'est court, ça fait dans les vingt pages;
    ∎ that's not to say I don't like it cela ne veut pas dire que je ne l'aime pas
    (tell) dire;
    ∎ he won't say il ne veut pas le dire;
    ∎ I'd rather not say je préfère ne rien dire;
    ∎ I can't say exactly je ne sais pas au juste;
    ∎ it's not for me to say (speak) ce n'est pas à moi de le dire; (decide) ce n'est pas à moi de décider;
    ∎ I can't say fairer than that je ne peux pas mieux dire;
    ∎ so to say pour ainsi dire;
    ∎ I say! (expressing surprise) eh bien!; (expressing indignation) dites donc!; (to attract attention) dites!;
    ∎ American say! dites donc!;
    ∎ I mean to say! tout de même!, quand même!;
    ∎ I'll say! et comment donc!;
    ∎ you don't say! sans blague!, ça alors!
    3 noun
    ∎ to have a say in sth avoir son mot à dire dans qch;
    ∎ I had no say in choosing the wallpaper on ne m'a pas demandé mon avis pour le choix du papier peint;
    ∎ I have no say in the matter je n'ai pas voix au chapitre;
    ∎ we had little say in the matter on ne nous a pas vraiment demandé notre avis;
    ∎ to have one's say dire ce qu'on a à dire;
    ∎ now you've had your say, let me have mine maintenant que vous avez dit ce que vous aviez à dire, laissez-moi parler

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > say

  • 16 Nobel, Immanuel

    [br]
    b. 1801 Gävle, Sweden
    d. 3 September 1872 Stockholm, Sweden
    [br]
    Swedish inventor and industrialist, particularly noted for his work on mines and explosives.
    [br]
    The son of a barber-surgeon who deserted his family to serve in the Swedish army, Nobel showed little interest in academic pursuits as a child and was sent to sea at the age of 16, but jumped ship in Egypt and was eventually employed as an architect by the pasha. Returning to Sweden, he won a scholarship to the Stockholm School of Architecture, where he studied from 1821 to 1825 and was awarded a number of prizes. His interest then leaned towards mechanical matters and he transferred to the Stockholm School of Engineering. Designs for linen-finishing machines won him a prize there, and he also patented a means of transforming rotary into reciprocating movement. He then entered the real-estate business and was successful until a fire in 1833 destroyed his house and everything he owned. By this time he had married and had two sons, with a third, Alfred (of Nobel Prize fame; see Alfred Nobel), on the way. Moving to more modest quarters on the outskirts of Stockholm, Immanuel resumed his inventions, concentrating largely on India rubber, which he applied to surgical instruments and military equipment, including a rubber knapsack.
    It was talk of plans to construct a canal at Suez that first excited his interest in explosives. He saw them as a means of making mining more efficient and began to experiment in his backyard. However, this made him unpopular with his neighbours, and the city authorities ordered him to cease his investigations. By this time he was deeply in debt and in 1837 moved to Finland, leaving his family in Stockholm. He hoped to interest the Russians in land and sea mines and, after some four years, succeeded in obtaining financial backing from the Ministry of War, enabling him to set up a foundry and arms factory in St Petersburg and to bring his family over. By 1850 he was clear of debt in Sweden and had begun to acquire a high reputation as an inventor and industrialist. His invention of the horned contact mine was to be the basic pattern of the sea mine for almost the next 100 years, but he also created and manufactured a central-heating system based on hot-water pipes. His three sons, Ludwig, Robert and Alfred, had now joined him in his business, but even so the outbreak of war with Britain and France in the Crimea placed severe pressures on him. The Russians looked to him to convert their navy from sail to steam, even though he had no experience in naval propulsion, but the aftermath of the Crimean War brought financial ruin once more to Immanuel. Amongst the reforms brought in by Tsar Alexander II was a reliance on imports to equip the armed forces, so all domestic arms contracts were abruptly cancelled, including those being undertaken by Nobel. Unable to raise money from the banks, Immanuel was forced to declare himself bankrupt and leave Russia for his native Sweden. Nobel then reverted to his study of explosives, particularly of how to adapt the then highly unstable nitroglycerine, which had first been developed by Ascanio Sobrero in 1847, for blasting and mining. Nobel believed that this could be done by mixing it with gunpowder, but could not establish the right proportions. His son Alfred pursued the matter semi-independently and eventually evolved the principle of the primary charge (and through it created the blasting cap), having taken out a patent for a nitroglycerine product in his own name; the eventual result of this was called dynamite. Father and son eventually fell out over Alfred's independent line, but worse was to follow. In September 1864 Immanuel's youngest son, Oscar, then studying chemistry at Uppsala University, was killed in an explosion in Alfred's laboratory: Immanuel suffered a stroke, but this only temporarily incapacitated him, and he continued to put forward new ideas. These included making timber a more flexible material through gluing crossed veneers under pressure and bending waste timber under steam, a concept which eventually came to fruition in the form of plywood.
    In 1868 Immanuel and Alfred were jointly awarded the prestigious Letterstedt Prize for their work on explosives, but Alfred never for-gave his father for retaining the medal without offering it to him.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Imperial Gold Medal (Russia) 1853. Swedish Academy of Science Letterstedt Prize (jointly with son Alfred) 1868.
    Bibliography
    Immanuel Nobel produced a short handwritten account of his early life 1813–37, which is now in the possession of one of his descendants. He also had published three short books during the last decade of his life— Cheap Defence of the Country's Roads (on land mines), Cheap Defence of the Archipelagos (on sea mines), and Proposal for the Country's Defence (1871)—as well as his pamphlet (1870) on making wood a more physically flexible product.
    Further Reading
    No biographies of Immanuel Nobel exist, but his life is detailed in a number of books on his son Alfred.
    CM

    Biographical history of technology > Nobel, Immanuel

  • 17 model

    1) модель (напр. экономики)
    2) тип, марка конструкции, модель (напр. автомобиля)

    Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > model

  • 18 Toyota production system

    Ops
    a manufacturing system, developed by Toyota in Japan after World War II, which aims to increase production efficiency by the elimination of waste in all its forms. The Toyota production system was invented, and made to work, by Taiichi Ohno. Japan’s fledgling car-making industry was suffering from poor productivity, and Ohno was brought into Toyota with an initial assignment of catching up with the productivity levels of Ford’s car plants. In analyzing the problem, he decided that although Japanese workers must be working at the same rate as their American counterparts, waste and inefficiency were the main causes of their different productivity levels. Ohno identified waste in a number of forms, including overproduction, waiting time, transportation problems, inefficient processing, inventory, and defective products. The philosophy of TPS is to remove or minimize the influence of all these elements. In order to achieve this, TPS evolved to operate under lean production conditions. It is made up of soft, or cultural aspects, such as automation with the human touch— autonomation—and hard, or technical, aspects, which include just-in-time, kanban, and production smoothing. Each aspect is equally important and complementary. TPS has proven itself to be one of the most efficient manufacturing systems in the world but although leading companies have adopted it in one form or another, few have been able to replicate the success of Toyota.
    Abbr. TPS

    The ultimate business dictionary > Toyota production system

  • 19 Hornblower, Jonathan

    [br]
    b. 1753 Cornwall (?), England
    d. 1815 Penryn, Cornwall, England
    [br]
    English mining engineer who patented an early form of compound steam engine.
    [br]
    Jonathan came from a family with an engineering tradition: his grandfather Joseph had worked under Thomas Newcomen. Jonathan was the sixth child in a family of thirteen whose names all began with "J". In 1781 he was living at Penryn, Cornwall and described himself as a plumber, brazier and engineer. As early as 1776, when he wished to amuse himself by making a small st-eam engine, he wanted to make something new and wondered if the steam would perform more than one operation in an engine. This was the foundation for his compound engine. He worked on engines in Cornwall, and in 1778 was Engineer at the Ting Tang mine where he helped Boulton \& Watt erect one of their engines. He was granted a patent in 1781 and in that year tried a large-scale experiment by connecting together two engines at Wheal Maid. Very soon John Winwood, a partner in a firm of iron founders at Bristol, acquired a share in the patent, and in 1782 an engine was erected in a colliery at Radstock, Somerset. This was probably not very successful, but a second was erected in the same area. Hornblower claimed greater economy from his engines, but steam pressures at that time were not high enough to produce really efficient compound engines. Between 1790 and 1794 ten engines with his two-cylinder arrangement were erected in Cornwall, and this threatened Boulton \& Watt's near monopoly. At first the steam was condensed by a surface condenser in the bottom of the second, larger cylinder, but this did not prove very successful and later a water jet was used. Although Boulton \& Watt proceeded against the owners of these engines for infringement of their patent, they did not take Jonathan Hornblower to court. He tried a method of packing the piston rod by a steam gland in 1781 and his work as an engineer must have been quite successful, for he left a considerable fortune on his death.
    [br]
    Bibliography
    1781, British patent no. 1,298 (compound steam engine).
    Further Reading
    R.Jenkins, 1979–80, "Jonathan Hornblower and the compound engine", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 11.
    J.Tann, 1979–80, "Mr Hornblower and his crew, steam engine pirates in the late 18th century", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 51.
    J.Farey, 1827, A Treatise on the Steam Engine, Historical, Practical and Descriptive, reprinted 1971, Newton Abbot: David \& Charles (an almost contemporary account of the compound engine).
    D.S.L.Cardwell, 1971, From Watt to Clausius. The Rise of Thermo dynamics in the Early Industrial Age, London: Heinemann.
    H.W.Dickinson, 1938, A Short History of the Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press.
    R.L.Hills, 1989, Power from Steam. A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, Cambridge University Press.
    RLH

    Biographical history of technology > Hornblower, Jonathan

  • 20 Langmuir, Irving

    [br]
    b. 31 January 1881 Brooklyn, New York, USA
    d. 16 August 1957 Falmouth, Massachusetts, USA
    [br]
    American Nobel Prize winner in chemistry in 1932 who was responsible for a number of important scientific developments ranging from electric lamps, through a high-vacuum transmitting tube (for broadcasting) to a high-vacuum mercury pump for studies in atomic structure, in radar and the stimulation of artificial rainfall.
    [br]
    Langmuir took a degree in metallurgical engineering at Columbia University School of Mines, and then a PhD in chemistry at Göttingen University in Germany. For much of his life he carried out research in physical chemistry at the General Electric Research Laboratory at Schenechtady, New York, where he remained until his retirement in 1950. One important result of his work there led to a great improvement in artificial illumination of homes. This was his development in 1913 of a much more efficient electric light bulb, which was filled with argon gas and had a coiled filament. The idea of using an inert gas was an old one, but it was not a viable proposition until a filament that could be coiled became available. Overall, Langmuir's lamp was more reliable than previous designs and gave a brighter light.
    [br]
    Further Reading
    Arthur A.Bright, 1949, The Electric Lamp Industry, New York: Macmillan. Floyd A.Lewis, 1961, The Incandescent Light, New York: Shorewood.
    DY

    Biographical history of technology > Langmuir, Irving

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